"Everything to do with Taoism is paradoxical."ⁱ

Recently I executed a library computer search for Taoist literature. This returned the translations of the Tao Te Ching and the classic discussions that I expected to see, but I also found Taoist books about horses, cars, Pooh, flowers, motherhood, sex, painting and sports. How did an Asian philosophy become so much a part of the "Western" world?

A Long Time Ago
Although the two people most often credited with the creation of Taoism were Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu, they were actually scholars who criticized the rigid traditions of Confucianism. Generally, Confucius was believed to have lived in the Sixth Century BCE. His philosophies focused on duty to family and society. History places Lao Tzu as a contemporary of Confucius while Chuang Tzu was typically placed in the 4th Century BCE. In reality, the beginnings of Taoism are lost to all but legend, and many of the tales about the early adepts are also disputed.

The earliest masters of Taoism were depicted as traveling eccentrics, hermits or healers in remote areas. As paradoxical as it seems to us, as Taoism spread, two branches developed. Some spiritual leaders earned their living as simple craftsmen while others developed a priesthood associated with exquisite temples containing intricate icons of deities. Eventually Taoism spread throughout the Asian world; with it spread new concepts of the roles of men and women.

Men and Women in Lands Far Away
Certainly Taoism influenced China and Japan for millennia. So, a review of Taoism should include an examination of the social expectations between the sexes in those areas.

For centuries in China, Taoism and Buddhism co-existed with Confucianism and Chinese folk religions such as shamanism or magical practices. The authority of each religion varied by region, ethic group or status. Even though Confucianism was the accepted state religion, Taoism maintained a strong influence. However, the fact of coexistence did not always translate into equality between men and women. Repeatedly the egalitarianism of Taoist philosophy was overshadowed by Confucianism's hierarchical mores.

Arguably, the parallel development of Taoism and Confucianism could be perceived as two opposing forces within China. The early Taoists disagreed with rigid control over social relationships; they believed life should flow with the natural way of things. Taoism extolled action (or inaction) based on how the natural world worked while Confucianism rigorously delineated behavior by sex, class and role within the family and society. Education based on the Confucian worldview placed women into a submissive and inferior role. On the other hand, Taoism affirmed the equivalent power of feminine (yin) and masculine (yang). Thus, while much of the behavior of the general public was ruled by the strict conventions of behavior, Taoism focused on the need for a balance of equally strong and interactive opposites. "Within Taoism, then, women were able to seek spiritual fulfillment beyond their family duties. Some joined convents; others gathered with men to discuss philosophy and religion; a few became Taoist adepts."ⁱⁱ

Over time, Confucianism and the belief that men and women had clearly defined proper roles pervaded Chinese society. Instead of bringing an enduring freedom of gender roles, Taoism's focus on the differences between men and women was used to uphold the subjugation of females.ⁱⁱⁱ This Confucian demarcation of social standing and gender roles continued for centuries until violence forced social change.

In the 20th Century, Chinese women fought in civil wars, became revolutionaries and entered the work force. Nowadays, the official stance of the People's Republic of China is atheism. However, even that government admits that people on the mainland still practice Buddhism and Taoism (as well as Islam and Christianity). In addition, the influence of Confucianism is recognized although it is considered secular in nature. In Taiwan, the religions of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism remain important to daily life.

Through the centuries, cultural expectations of behavior in Japan underwent a similar shift. In the 7th century, Taoism reached Japan. Not to be outdone, Confucianism came along too. In spite of that, Japanese women maintained a position of equality longer than their Chinese neighbors. In China, during the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE), the ideal for a woman was one of calm submission. At the same time in Japan, the standard for a woman was that of striving to use her individual abilities to reach excellence. In fact, in 950 CE, the lives of Japanese men and women were so separated that they wrote in different languages.

The mingling of Shintoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and the samurai culture created a complex set of social influences in Japan. In spite of that, more than a millennium would pass before the predominate attitude of society changed from the equal and opposite belief of Taoism to the rule of the Three Obediences: the girl obeyed her father, the wife obeyed her husband, and the widow obeyed her son. By that time (1600 CE), gender roles had become solidified and female positions were limited to the home and family. Women did not begin to regain public positions until the beginning of the 20th century.iv

In modern times, Japanese families tend to view these traditions as cultural instead of religious. A typical family will commemorate a birth, wedding or funeral with Shinto or Buddhist rituals; the family sees no problem with incorporating Shintoism and Buddhism. Custom might dictate that the family attends a shrine or temple on the first day of the year, and they might still maintain an altar in their residence. Many people consult divination - Taoism brought that to Japan -- before starting a new endeavor. Shintoism and Buddhism co-exist, and Taoist temples remain.

Throughout Asia, Taoism survived even when other religions gained supremacy. As populations shifted and migrated, Taoism moved with them.

Everything Old Is New Again
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, European and US scholars traveled to China. Some of them studied Taoism and its magical sidekicks, divination and alchemy. By 1960, meditation, martial arts, yoga and Tai Chi had captured followers. As interest in "Eastern" thought and alternative treatments such as acupuncture grew in popularity, religions such as Buddhism and Taoism caught the attention of many people.

Some of these seekers from the "Western" world were looking for a way to improve physical health, many were simply curious, and a few were looking for a way of life. They found their answers in Taoism.

Although the trappings changed in the "Western" world, the essential tenets remained the same.

Basic Yin and Yang
As already mentioned, one of the foundations of the Taoist philosophy is the belief in equal and opposite forces. Yin and yang spring from an examination of plants and animals, water and mountains, and the cycles of the seasons. The Taoist sage masters the art of watching the natural world and from these observations he or she extrapolates rules of life.

In nature, the feminine (yin) and masculine (yang) separate and merge together to create all of the cycles of life. As an example, on a clear night, the stars (yang) are easily seen in the night sky (yin). But the interaction of yin and yang proves that the combination of the two creates something even more important. "Nature never makes a mistake. She has created balance, taking two conflictive forces to make something of beauty and power."v

Taoists accept the existence of opposites as necessary and right. In Taoism, no beauty exists without ugliness, no day without night, and so it follows, no feminine without masculine. Yin, the feminine, encompasses those elements that are introverted, reflective, serene and receptive, while yang, the masculine, includes energy described as active, dominating and extroverted. (Please refer to The General Characterizations table for a more detailed list of these forces.)

This collaboration of contradictory forces is pictured in the Tai Chi symbol, commonly called the yin-yang, with its interlocking swirls of white and black (or, more rarely, red and black). Within this symbol, the strip of black dances with the curve of white, as each ribbon encircles its opposite color. This representation symbolizes both the separation and the unity of yin and yang. As with everything in the world, although yin and yang are separate, they are interdependent. Inside the black rests a small portion of white, and so too, the white surrounds a circle of black. The meaning is clear: there is always some yin inside yang and some yang inside yin.

In fact, in the cycle of life, each becomes the other. We see this easily when we contemplate the seasons. Summer, the high point of the yang season, flows into autumn where yin and yang mix together. In winter, yin rules and yang is overwhelmed by yin. From there, the cycle flows onward to spring, when yin and yang merge again.

All Together Now
As with all spiritual systems, the philosophy of the yin and yang concept is often quite different from the interpretation of the religion. Both China and Japan used words from Taoism to support a hierarchy that subjugated the feminine within society. Just as cultures sometimes delegated women to a lower class, we can easily dismiss the power of yin. Unless we delve deeply, we can easily believe that yang is stronger than yin. For example, it is easy to see the power in the active, energetic, fiery sun. And truly, the sun is gloriously yang. Perhaps we can comprehend a quiet strength in a mountain - yin - but it is difficult to understand the power of passivity, restfulness or introversion. What is the power of water? Certainly, without water, the light of the sun would not result in fertility and growth. Intellectually we accept this, but it is hard to understand how water can be strong. We cannot grasp water, only capture it. Because it flows around obstacles, we see water as weaker than fire that can rage destructively.

"Although the Tao is the order of the universe, it is a very different order from the rigid concepts of Western culture. This organic order is most perfectly symbolized by water, the weakest element yet the strongest: 'It is thus that Tao in the world is like a river going down the valley to the ocean.'" (Lao-tzu)vi

When we study the specific categorization of plants or animals, we find that no plant, animal or human is entirely yin or completely yang. Additionally, Taoists believe that this interwoven balancing act of yin and yang is necessary to prevent chaos. For example, here is an analysis of the yin and yang elements found within one plant.

The evening primrose is an excellent example of the balance of yin and yang. This plant circulates energy beautifully. Its tall, symmetrical stature gives us a clue to its special ability to achieve a perfect equilibrium between these two dynamic forces. With its fire energy, it carries the life force heavenward along its central axis, the stem, and emanates that energy outward through its leaves and brilliant yellow blossoms as it proceeds on its ascension.

The yin energy of the evening primrose is exemplified in its relationship to the sphinx moth. It is the host plant for this moth, which is almost as big as a hummingbird. Without the nurturing and receptivity of the primrose's fragrant blossoms, the moth could not be sustained.^vii

Thus, we see that even a flower is not simply yang.

In the regions where Taoism incorporates gods, the divine beings called the Immortals are pictured with a balancing energy. Typically, the goddess of immortality, whose name is "the Queen of the Peach Garden in the West," is painted carrying a bowl and accompanied by a phoenix. The west and the bowl are the epitome of yin, but the phoenix represents the yang. By the same token, the bald-headed god of longevity is shown holding a peach. The peach is considered the most feminine of fruit because of its shape. Even the gods must have balance.

Nature - and all of the elements of nature - is complete and, unsurprisingly, is balanced in a state of grace. According to the Tao Te Ching, individuals and society must cultivate this state of natural grace; they must strive to cultivate both masculine and feminine attributes. With balance, all is well; the power of yang is balanced by the strength of yin. If a person has too much yin or an excess of yang, it leads to dysfunction; in other words, the person becomes ill. The same is true for civilization. We can see this concept with no trouble in the yin-yang symbol. Without a balance of yin and yang, without equal portions of yin and yang, the circle becomes warped.

The cycle of nature, the flowing of yang into yin, and that of yin merging with yang, exists in each human and all life. Each person must work to balance the yang and yin energy within the body. "Activity for health's sake, never carried to the point of strain, must alternate with perfect stillness."^viii Living with nature as a guide leads the individual into a life freed of stress, a life filled with the certainty of proper action.

"A dedicated Taoist is one who seeks to live as closely in accord as possible with nature. From the outset this involves contemplation of nature's ways, recognition of their fitness, and perception that all of them are 'good' in the sense of being essential to the pattern as a whole."^ix

We live in a time when news reporters regularly cover ecological predicaments and natural disasters. Perhaps these disasters can be rationalized as someone else's problems. A Taoist, however, would say that living in the world is a mystical and educational experience. In fact, they would say that the universe must return to its natural balance so that people can return to balance. Just as the yin-yang symbol is unified within the boundaries of the circle, we are one with nature.

Taoism teaches us that nothing is unchanging. As each individual grows and changes, sometimes that person is receptive and other times domineering, sometimes yin and other times yang. Viewed in this way, one person becomes more than simply a list of characterizations based on gender. An individual becomes one component of the multifaceted interaction taking place in the universe.

"The natural world, on the other hand, is one of infinite varieties and complexities, a multidimensional world which contains no straight lines or completely regular shapes, where things do not happen in sequence, but all together; a world where - as modern physics tells us - even empty space is curved."^x

Just as we can learn to appreciate the internal balance of yin and yang that creates a unique person, we can appreciate our distinctive placement within the universe. If we can learn anything from the complex interlocking natural world, let it be that each individual is a fusion of yin and yang and that each is a part of the Tao.

NOTES:

i	Blofield, John. Taoism: The Road to Immortality. Boston: Shambhala Publications Inc., 1978. p. 90.
ii	Women in World History Curriculum (1996-2006). Gender Difference in History: Women in China and Japan, excerpted and modified from "Teaching About Women in China and Japan," by Lyn Reese, found in Social Education, NCSS, March 2003.). Available online: http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/essay-04.html (accessed February 17, 2006).
iii	Zhan, Heying Jenny. Chinese family and the state: gender-role socialisation [sic] and social control. Sexual Health Exchange, 2002-4. Available online: http://www.kit.nl/frameset.asp?/ils/exchange_content/html/2002-4_chinese_family.asp&frnr=1& (accessed February 22, 2006)
iv	Women in World History Curriculum. Ibid.
v	Fenton, Peter, PhD. Wisdom of Tai Chi: Ancient Secrets to Health & Harmony. Lincolnwood, IL: Publications International, Ltd., 1998. p. 38.
vi	Unknown. Sacred Symbols: Tao. "The good of water." New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996.
vii	Fenton. Ibid. p. 28.
viii	Blofield. Ibid. p. 11.
ix	Blofield, Ibid, p. 11.
x	Capra, Fritjof. The Tao of Physics. New York: Bantam Books, 1977. p. 15.